The concept of just transition emerged as a response to socioeconomic problems arising from environmental policies that particularly affected communities and sectors dependent on fossil fuels. Its origins trace back to the 1970s and later to the 1990s labor movement in the US. The concept gained significant importance in international climate negotiations during the COP13 in Bali (2007). At this conference, trade unions made a public statement emphasizing the need to address the specific needs of regions most affected by decarbonization policies. Thus, trade unions urged prioritizing justice, human rights, and social protection, as well as ensuring upskilling and reskilling.
Global Role of the ILO
The International Labour Organization (ILO) played a crucial role in the development of just transition initiatives with its “Policy Guidelines for a Just Transition towards Sustainable Economies and Societies for All” in 2015, which emphasized social dialogue and harmonization of environmental, social, and labor policies. According to the ILO, “a just transition means making the economy as just and inclusive as possible for all stakeholders, creating decent work opportunities, and leaving no one behind.”
Regarding international climate negotiations, the Paris Agreement recognizes the need for policies that protect workers and communities during the green transition, and numerous declarations, associations, and calls to action have taken place since its adoption. Within the EU, the European Green Deal (2019) highlighted the importance of just transition strategies as the main driver for achieving climate neutrality by 2050. The European Just Transition Mechanism (EJTM) provides financial support to reduce the impacts of the transition towards net-zero emissions. To access financial aid from any of the three pillars of the EJTM, member states must present territorial just transition plans with measures tailored to regional challenges that reflect their specific development needs.
Apart from the EJTM, the EU has launched several financing instruments to support just transition initiatives: the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), aimed at reducing economic and territorial disparities and fostering a more ecological and social economy. The European Social Fund Plus (ESF+), which finances upskilling and reskilling programs. The Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF), which includes investments in environmental, social, and digital projects. Spain is the only member state that incorporated a specific component of just transition (Component 10) in its National Recovery and Resilience Plan. The Climate Social Fund (CSF), developed alongside the ETS 2 to support vulnerable groups (those suffering from energy and transport poverty) that will be more affected by the expansion of the ETS regime to cover small industry, heating, and transport. Projects that will be funded through the CSF will be included in the climate social plans that member states must present to the European Commission by June 2025. The CSF will mobilize 86.7 billion euros between 2026 and 2032 and is aimed at supporting energy efficiency, renewable energy, and low-emission mobility projects, as well as providing direct income to vulnerable citizens for a determined period.
The European Commission has supported member states in developing their climate social plans and has formulated recommendations to enhance the effectiveness of investments and public participation, with citizen participation (both in the planning and execution phases of the climate social plans) being fundamental to ensuring a socially acceptable just transition. Funds will be disbursed when objectives and milestones are met. The CSF will be financed by member states (25%) through the auction of rights in the European Emissions Trading System (where sectors of transport and construction are included in ETS2), and also with 50 million ETS rights.
Despite the progress made, the integration of just transition principles into the European Green Deal has been uneven, with some policies mentioning just transition goals without providing additional guidance. Initiatives like the FTJ and the CSF could help address the socially regressive effects of decarbonization policies. The approval of a framework governed by the no one left behind principle could better integrate the social dimension within the European Green Deal and, possibly, the Green Industrial Deal. Additionally, it is necessary to improve just transition frameworks to meet increasingly ambitious climate targets, especially if the EU adopts a 90% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2040.
The Spanish population perceives climate change as the second most important threat to the world (after armed conflicts). The abundance of renewable resources and technological know-how has enabled Spain to achieve rapid advancements in the energy transition, especially in the deployment of renewable energy and the progressive phase-out of coal. The proportion of coal in the energy mix dropped from 14.3% in 2018 to 2.8% in 2022, reducing greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power generation by nearly 80%, according to the Institute for Just Transition (2023). However, increasingly ambitious climate policy goals, other pressing concerns, and the limited capacity to address these concerns can hinder both the acceleration of climate action and its public acceptance. Some regions are opposing or delaying the implementation of climate and renewable energy policies.
Spain’s Socioeconomic Impact Mitigation Policies
To address the socioeconomic repercussions of climate action, Spain has launched numerous policies and instruments under the Just Transition framework. In 2019, Spain approved its Energy and Climate Strategic Framework. Within this framework, both the National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan (NIEPC) and the Law on Climate Change and Energy Transition refer to just transition. Additionally, the Energy and Climate Strategic Framework of Spain developed the first Just Transition Strategy, which will be updated in 2025. Specifically, the Spanish Law on Climate Change and Energy Transition (Law 7/2021), which aims for climate neutrality by 2050, includes just transition in Title VI (articles 27-29). It also mandates the development of just transition strategies (ETS) and just transition agreements (CTTs) as execution mechanisms for the strategy. The CTTs include the participation of decentralized administrations (i.e., regional governments) and stakeholders in the progressive phase-out of coal and nuclear energy in Spain. The National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan (NIEPC) has been recently updated for the period 2023-2030. The NIEPC includes measure 1.25 that refers to the Just Transition Strategy, the Institute for Just Transition, and an urgent action plan for mining regions, coal-fired power plants, and nuclear power plants, as well as requesting that measures and instruments for expansion take a gender perspective.
Spain’s Just Transition Strategy aligns with the ILO’s guidelines for a just transition and the Paris Agreement. The purpose of the Just Transition Strategy is to ensure that collectively agreed climate targets do not leave behind any regions, sectors, or communities, potentially helping to reduce opposition to climate policies. This first Just Transition Strategy was designed to manage the repercussions of decarbonization for regions and people whose livelihoods depend on activities that will be progressively phased out during the transition. With its Just Transition Strategy, Spain aims to support the most vulnerable regions and people, ensure that the benefits of the transition are distributed fairly, and increase public participation and stakeholder interaction. Just Transition Strategies are five-year plans with specific measures and objectives. It has been stated that Spain’s Just Transition Strategy, possibly one of the most advanced internationally, facilitates a continuous and scalable transition process. The strategy focuses on job creation, recycling, and skill enhancement (upskilling and reskilling), promoting economic diversification through local resources, and supporting vulnerable groups such as women, young people, rural populations, and traditionally marginalized communities.
The Institute for Just Transition (ITJ)
A key institution in Spain’s governance framework for just transition is the Institute for Just Transition (ITJ), established in 2020 and dependent on the Ministry for Ecological Transition and Demographic Challenge (MITECO). Its origins trace back to Spain’s response to EU regulations on state aid to the coal industry. After the CECA treaty ended, coal mining developed under Council Regulation (EC) No 1407/2002 on state aid to the coal industry and subsequent EU regulatory frameworks. Decision 2010/787/EU declared that receiving state aid to cover production losses would be considered compatible with the internal market as long as subsidized coal mines adhered to a closure plan with the final deadline of December 31, 2018. This Council decision highlighted the need for member states to address the socioeconomic effects of mine closures.
Some of the instruments used by Spain to implement the transition include:
- Urgent Action Plans: reskilling programs, early retirement schemes, and business incentives for the most affected regions. The first of these initiatives was the Framework Agreement for a Just Transition of the Coal Mining Industry and the Sustainable Development of Mining Areas for the Period 2019-2027, signed in 2018 by the Government, trade unions, and the National Federation of Coal Mining Companies (Carbunión).
Convenios de transición justa: una herramienta de co-gobernanza que cuenta con la participación de actores nacionales, regionales y locales para, entre otros objetivos, desarrollar oportunidades económicas y promover el upskilling y el reskilling de los trabajadores. En total, se han firmado 15 convenios que abarcan a 197 municipios y ocho comunidades autónomas. Un ejemplo de CTJ es el de As Pontes, Galicia, con iniciativas como la financiación de espacios de coworking para pequeñas y medianas empresas (PYMES), la construcción de un centro de logística, el desarrollo de nuevos destinos turísticos, proyectos de restauración medioambiental, el apoyo a proyectos empresariales como una fábrica de neumáticos y un molino de reciclaje de celulosa y el desarrollo de una central de hidrógeno renovable, entre otros.
Concursos en nudos de transición justa: sirven para brindar acceso a la red a proyectos renovables y de almacenamiento que limiten el daño medioambiental, den prioridad a los beneficios locales (incluidos el reskilling y el upskilling) y estén ubicados en regiones anteriormente dependientes del carbón.
Hasta la fecha, en el gráfico 4 se resumen los principales logros y características de los CTJ. Estos incluyen la implementación de la Estrategia de Transición Justa y el Instituto para la Transición Justa, el apoyo a regímenes que preserven el empleo y retengan a los trabajadores afectados, el desarrollo de programas de apoyo a empresas y emprendedores locales, la firma de 15 convenios de transición justa y concursos en nudos de transición justa, la cualificación de 1.300 trabajadores y la generación de energía autogenerada para 3.800 beneficiarios. Además, se han restaurado 3.700 hectáreas de antiguas instalaciones mineras, se han apoyado más de 200 proyectos municipales con 203 millones de euros en subvenciones para iniciativas empresariales, turismo, infraestructuras sanitarias y vivienda social, y se ha implementado el programa cultural Dinamiz-ARTj, con más de 1.400 solicitudes de actuación en 136 municipios. Los convenios de transición justa también han permitido la presentación de propuestas por más de 800 agentes y la realización de reuniones de seguimiento en los distintos territorios, apoyando a 197 municipios en la presentación de propuestas de proyectos.
Para analizar el apoyo ciudadano a la transición justa en España, se incluyó una pregunta específica en la encuesta de 2023 del Real Instituto Elcano sobre ciudadanía y cambio climático. A través de una escala de Likert de cinco puntos, se preguntó a una muestra representativa de la población española hasta qué punto estaban de acuerdo (desde “muy de acuerdo” a “muy en desacuerdo”) con la afirmación “El gobierno debe invertir en las zonas que pierdan sus negocios por el cambio climático o por las políticas para luchar contra él, aunque eso suponga tener menos dinero para otras cosas”. Esta pregunta pretendía comprender el apoyo de las personas encuestadas a un concepto amplio de transición justa que incluye la adaptación justa y la transición justa conforme a la definición de la OIT. Casi el 70 % de las personas encuestadas se mostraron de acuerdo o muy de acuerdo con esta afirmación, siendo el apoyo a las inversiones para una transición justa la política que obtuvo un mayor consenso en todo el espectro ideológico en comparación con otras afirmaciones sobre políticas.
Para analizar las variables estadísticamente significativas para aumentar la probabilidad de aceptar las inversiones gubernamentales destinadas a iniciativas de transición justa, se recurrió a un modelo de regresión logística. En el modelo, es la probabilidad de que un ciudadano apoye una transición justa en España, son las variables explicativas del modelo y, por último, ß son los coeficientes, que se estiman utilizando el método de máxima verosimilitud. Las variables explicativas incluidas en el análisis están diseñadas para capturar un abanico de factores actitudinales, socioeconómicos y demográficos que podrían afectar el apoyo de la ciudadanía a la transición justa. Estas variables incluyen el apoyo a una transición justa, el sexo, la edad, la ideología, el tamaño del municipio, la renta y la escala Nuevo Paradigma Ecológico (NEP).
Las personas situadas a la izquierda del espectro ideológico, las que viven en municipios más pequeños y las que tienen una renta más baja son más propensas a respaldar las inversiones públicas en transición justa frente a los individuos de mayor renta, quienes se encuentran a la derecha del espectro político y quienes viven en ciudades más grandes. Las personas situadas a la izquierda del espectro ideológico son un 7,3% más propensas a apoyar una transición justa que quienes se sitúan a la derecha del espectro ideológico. Las personas entrevistadas con renta baja, es decir, que ganaban menos de 1.081 euros al mes, son un 13,21% más propensas a apoyar las políticas de transición justa que los entrevistados con renta alta, es decir, quienes ganan más de 3.001 euros al mes. Los ciudadanos que viven en municipios más grandes (entre 50.001 y 100.000 habitantes) son un 9,33% menos propensos a apoyar una transición justa que quienes viven en municipios más pequeños (hasta 25.000 habitantes).
After analyzing the current framework for the just transition in Spain and noting the broad public support for national policies on just transition, there is reflection on the elements that should be considered in the next National Just Transition Strategy. The first Just Transition Strategy focused mainly on addressing the repercussions of the progressive elimination of coal and nuclear energy. It is expected that the updated Just Transition Strategy will continue to deal with the effects of the gradual elimination of fossil fuels while broadening its sectoral scope. The updated strategy is expected to be ready by the end of 2025, providing a brief window of about a year for Spain to finalize its second Just Transition Strategy. The Spanish transition to net-zero emissions will require the rapid deployment of renewable energy alongside the gradual elimination of fossil fuels. This transition could lead to a profound social transformation, especially if societal opposition to the deployment of renewables is limited. Acceptance of renewable deployment could increase through projects that promote local development and employment, contributing to reducing rural depopulation. However, to maximize socioeconomic benefits, active citizen and stakeholder participation and the development of long-term projects in transition regions are essential.
Addressing Challenges and Providing Local Economic Opportunities
To address the challenges posed by the deployment of renewables and provide local economic opportunities, the Ministry for the Ecological Transition and Demographic Challenge (MITECO) organized several public participation sessions in March and April 2024. The goal of these sessions was to create a shared vision for the deployment of renewable energy in Spain, ensuring an inclusive transition that considers local development needs. Some of the topics discussed included: the deployment of renewable energy, short- and long-term employment opportunities, gender equality, initiatives to halt rural depopulation, sustainable mobility, energy efficiency, and prosumers, strengthening community and intersectoral debate, reinforcing local identities, and promoting collective work, and public participation.
Key conclusions from the sessions are summarized in Chart 9. The transition must balance social, environmental, and economic priorities while helping to limit global temperature rise to 1.5°C. Collaborative approaches are essential to triple installed renewable capacity and double energy efficiency. Current initiatives are insufficient, so it is necessary to achieve a significant consensus and transform production and consumption patterns. It is recommended to promote collaboration among diverse stakeholders, include stakeholder perspectives in policy and project design, and ensure that decision-making is based on data to develop balanced solutions for integrating renewable energy.
The population should benefit from decarbonization; territories should benefit from renewable energy installations: the more and better the social benefits are distributed, the more attractive these projects will be for local communities and the more support they will receive. Renewables can support sustainable local employment, strengthen rural economies, and reduce energy poverty through initiatives of self-consumption and improved energy efficiency. The role of women in the renewable sector was also emphasized to address depopulation. It is recommended to develop or strengthen tools to analyze the social impacts of projects, prioritize local employment and self-consumption, increase women’s participation through training and financial support, and plan specific interventions for vulnerable groups.
Geographies of Discontent
The term “geographies of discontent” refers to territories that suffer from grievances, depopulation, and limited access to services. It is necessary to move away from urban-centric perspectives, recognizing that rural territories have their own opinions, needs, and priorities. This is a complex process that must be addressed holistically. Multilevel governance and the local profitability of renewable energy projects are essential to support rural areas. Community energy needs protection and continuity despite changes in government. It is recommended to ensure transparency, active dialogue, and consensus-seeking to improve rural well-being and prioritize female employment. It is recommended to achieve a territorial representation in decision-making that is equitable. Reinvesting in the territory the profitability derived from renewable energy deployment to halt depopulation is recommended. It is recommended to achieve a balance between large and small promoters and protect community energy. Programs related to energy training and communication should be supported.
The deployment of renewable energies must align with international, European, and national commitments to biodiversity conservation and ensure environmental and territorial integration. Good practices include environmental zoning, the development and dissemination of a centralized data system on biodiversity, and the incorporation of biodiversity protection criteria alongside territorial and social integration measures in renewable energy projects. It is recommended to deepen territorial and environmental planning, which includes identifying degraded areas to minimize the impact of renewables on biodiversity; systematically monitoring species and their interactions with human activities; enhancing environmental impact assessments (EIA) and adaptive management; using pilot zones such as biosphere reserves to find scalable solutions; and ensuring transparency, communication, and the involvement of involved territories.
Monitoring and EIA are tools for preventing and reducing the environmental impacts of renewable energy deployment. They also facilitate the long-term coexistence of renewables and biodiversity. Corrective measures and comprehensive zoning tools ensure the compatibility of projects with the environment. Some best practices include corrective and compensatory measures to restore degraded habitats or specific conservation plans. It is recommended to strengthen public participation processes to ensure that the public is informed and can participate fully in project authorization processes; enhance public administration (local and regional) capabilities to monitor compliance with EIA and follow-up plans; advanced digital planning and monitoring tools (e.g., visualization tools, AI, radars, drones); and create a catalog of best practices in different territories that can be adapted and replicated in other areas.
Renewables open the door to rural development opportunities, but to take advantage of their benefits, transparency, participation, dissemination, and commitment are needed to develop projects that are locally accepted. Early public transparency and participation in project phases help dispel the perception that renewable energy deployment is already planned and decided, and that consultations are merely a formality that could lead to a “closed project” effect. It is recommended to prioritize the use of degraded areas and develop equitable zoning strategies to optimize land use while avoiding conflicts with existing economic activities. It is recommended to create business and industrial nodes around energy generation centers and promote local employment through specific training programs and incentives for local suppliers. It is recommended to support local authorities in energy planning and foster collaboration between administrations to improve governance and coordination. It is recommended to invest in the development of community energy to involve residents in renewable energy projects, fostering trust and long-term commitment. It is recommended to develop mapping tools to include social and environmental criteria in project planning and adopt measures to ensure that projects meet the needs of local economies. It is recommended to allow communities in transition to access the best available information, such as scalable projects and initiatives developed in other territories.
Having considered the information already examined on the offer and demand for just transition policies, the increasingly severe effects of climate change, and Spain’s very ambitious goals for the deployment of renewables as set out in its updated PNIEC, the future strategy for just transition could include, at a minimum, eight initiatives. First, maintaining the course of the just transition to mitigate the impact of the progressive elimination of fossil fuels and expanding its scope. This would involve including more economic sectors that will be increasingly affected by climate change and climate policies in the scope of the updated Just Transition Strategy. These sectors would include those mentioned in the first ETJ: tourism, construction, industry, transport, water and waste management, and agriculture, among others. Second, reinforcing public participation and governance by promoting participatory decision-making processes that include citizens and stakeholders at early stages of project planning and throughout the entire process. Specific and transparent communication campaigns could help close ideological gaps and reduce opposition to climate policies. Third, empowering local communities and promoting socioeconomic integration, prioritizing investments in community-led projects and initiatives to promote self-consumption, with the aim of supporting vulnerable groups and creating local employment opportunities. Additionally, projects could be carried out to increase the technical and financial competencies of local authorities to actively participate in energy planning. Fourth, promoting gender equality by expanding training programs for women in traditionally male-dominated sectors, such as energy, and promoting entrepreneurial initiatives by women in rural areas. Fifth, supporting rural development by integrating renewable energy projects into rural development plans to help stem depopulation and boost economic growth. Sixth, improving transparency by developing robust mechanisms for monitoring to evaluate the social, economic, and environmental impacts of renewable energy initiatives. Creating a centralized catalog of best practices and case studies to facilitate knowledge exchange and the scaling of renewable projects. Seventh, reinforcing collaboration between ministries, decentralized administrations, other EU member states, and internationally to learn from other just transition practices, help disseminate Spain’s experience, and form a global framework for just transition that can be adapted to meet local needs. Finally, expanding the concept of just transition so that the deployment of renewable energy technologies and infrastructure is equitable and socially acceptable. This could involve considering the recommendations extracted from the public participation process on renewables in the Spanish government and improving impact assessments, facilitating community and stakeholder participation at early stages of projects, seeking economic opportunities for regions where renewable energy is deployed, involving cities and towns in climate action, and aspiring to achieve a just transition with a gender perspective.
Key Initiatives for Just Transition
First, maintaining the course of the just transition to mitigate the impact of the progressive elimination of fossil fuels and expanding its scope. This would involve including more economic sectors that will be increasingly affected by climate change and climate policies in the scope of the updated Just Transition Strategy. These sectors would include those mentioned in the first ETJ: tourism, construction, industry, transport, water and waste management, and agriculture, among others. Second, reinforcing public participation and governance by promoting participatory decision-making processes that include citizens and stakeholders at early stages of project planning and throughout the entire process. Specific and transparent communication campaigns could help close ideological gaps and reduce opposition to climate policies. Third, empowering local communities and promoting socioeconomic integration, prioritizing investments in community-led projects and initiatives to promote self-consumption, with the aim of supporting vulnerable groups and creating local employment opportunities. Additionally, projects could be carried out to increase the technical and financial competencies of local authorities to actively participate in energy planning. Fourth, promoting gender equality by expanding training programs for women in traditionally male-dominated sectors, such as energy, and promoting entrepreneurial initiatives by women in rural areas. Fifth, supporting rural development by integrating renewable energy projects into rural development plans to help stem depopulation and boost economic growth. Sixth, improving transparency by developing robust mechanisms for monitoring to evaluate the social, economic, and environmental impacts of renewable energy initiatives. Creating a centralized catalog of best practices and case studies to facilitate knowledge exchange and the scaling of renewable projects. Seventh, reinforcing collaboration between ministries, decentralized administrations, other EU member states, and internationally to learn from other just transition practices, help disseminate Spain’s experience, and form a global framework for just transition that can be adapted to meet local needs. Finally, expanding the concept of just transition so that the deployment of renewable energy technologies and infrastructure is equitable and socially acceptable. This could involve considering the recommendations extracted from the public participation process on renewables in the Spanish government and improving impact assessments, facilitating community and stakeholder participation at early stages of projects, seeking economic opportunities for regions where renewable energy is deployed, involving cities and towns in climate action, and aspiring to achieve a just transition with a gender perspective.
The proposal to introduce a new mechanism for just transition governance that contributes to meeting ambitious renewable energy goals and addressing existing conflicts for the deployment of renewables includes the development of “just renewable transition agreements” (CTRJ). The proposed CTRJ resembles the Spanish just transition agreements for the gradual phase-out of fossil fuels, but would be designed to address the progressive integration of renewable energies and other technologies and infrastructure necessary to achieve climate neutrality. Similar to just transition agreements for the gradual phase-out of coal and nuclear energy, CTRJ could involve the following steps: Reaching an agreement between the national government, regional and local governments, and renewable energy companies to collaborate within the framework of a CTRJ. Agreeing on the geographical scope of the CTRJ. Conducting a local impact assessment of renewable, technological, or infrastructure projects proposed. Allowing stakeholder participation and organizing public participation processes during the conception/planning phase of the projects. Implementing investment, reskilling, and cultural or other projects that can be carried out alongside renewable deployment or related technologies and infrastructure to increase local acceptance of the projects. Determining funding sources and helping governments and local communities access these funds. Developing and implementing the CTRJ. Monitoring and reporting on the implementation of the CTRJ (including citizens’ and stakeholders’ perceptions of its implementation) and creating a database of CTRJ to help disseminate best practices and lessons learned in Spain and other countries. CTRJ could represent for the private sector, communities, and local governments involved in renewable energy projects, as well as other related projects, an institutional framework, a structured and transparent process for designing locally supported projects that take into account community needs and limit opposition to renewables. Drawing from the best practices of civil society and private sector organizations, institutions such as the Institute for Just Transition or the Institute for Diversification and Energy Saving (IDAE) could launch the CTRJ.
